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Title: Subatomic Mechanisms – How Gravity, Magnetism, Light and other common phenomena work and the nature of Protons, Neutrons, Electrons and Atomic Structure explained in terms of neutrinos and subatomic mechanisms

Author: Douglas Hinckfuss

Comments: 46 pages, text only

Because existing atomic theory was conceived well before any knowledge of neutrinos, it gives no importance to the involvement of neutrinos in structure of subatomic particles and in subatomic mechanisms between those particles. Consequently, how common phenomena work or occur – gravity, light, C, magnetism, nuclear and molecular bonding, electrostatics, forces, etc. – and the real nature of subatomic particles – electrons, protons, neutrons, etc., all remains a mystery. This paper proposes that neutrinos, comprising some 96% of all matter, the non-observable matter and energy in the universe, are responsible for the structure of all subatomic particles in the other 4% of observable matter in the universe and describes how various common phenomena including those mentioned above would actually work.

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SUBATOMIC MECHANISMS
How Gravity, Magnetism, Light and other common phenomena work and the nature of Protons, Neutrons, Electrons and Atomic Structure – explained in terms of neutrinos and subatomic mechanisms

Douglas Hinckfuss, October 2008

CONTENTS “Subatomic Mechanisms”
FOREWORD
Particles in Subatomic Mechanisms
Neutrinos

BASIC SUBATOMIC MECHANISMS
(A) Traffic Jams of Neutrinos – The Origin of Protons and Observable Matter
(B) Equilibrium Size of Protons – Neutrons and heavy Cosmic Radiation
(C) Proton Spin – How C, the Speed of Light, fits into this model
(D) Gravity – Why an Apple Falls – Movement of Neutrino Cyclones
(E) Electrons and Charge – Dispersion of Neutrinos from the Poles of Protons
(F) Stopping and Repulsion of a Proton – Proton Collisions
– Uncoordinated Neutrino Dispersion from Protons and Shielding Effects
(G) Movement of Protons with a Stream of Coordinated Neutrinos – Mutual
Movement of Magnets and Electrostatically Charged Bodies
(H) Collisions of Individual Neutrinos and Interaction of Sets of Neutrinos
– Processes which do not involve protons
– Transition from Spin Rotational Energy to Linear Kinetic Energy
(I) Orientation of a Proton’s Axis of Spin – Behaviour of Surface Protons
in Atomic Nuclei and Surface Protons in a Mass of Atoms

DISCUSSION OF SOME COMMON PHENOMENA AND OTHER MATTERS
1. Creation of Observable Matter
2. Annihilation of Observable Matter
3. Cosmic Radiation
4. The Unification Theory Paradox
5. Charge
6. Molecular Bonding
7. Nuclear Bonding and Nuclear Packing
8. Light and General Electromagnetic Radiation
9. Einstein’s Special Relativity and the Speed of Light
10. C – Use as a universal constant
11. Speed of Light in Media
12. Gravity & Light
13. Black Holes
14. Relativistic Mass Increase – No it’s not
15. Static Electricity
16. The Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
17. Electricity and Electromagnetism
18. Heat, Temperature and Resistance to Electricity Flow
19. Magnetism
20. Positrons and Anti-particles
21. The Structure of Atoms – Comparison to the Status Quo

CONCLUSIONSREFERENCES

SUBATOMIC MECHANISMS
How Gravity, Magnetism, Light and other common phenomena work and the nature of Protons, Neutrons, Electrons and Atomic Structure – explained in terms of neutrinos and subatomic mechanisms
Douglas Hinckfuss, October 2008

FOREWORD

If you’ve received your scientific education within the last one hundred years, you won’t know much about subatomic mechanisms. You won’t know what gravity is or how it works; you won’t know what light is or why it happens to travel at around C; you won’t know how component protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus stick together or why protons and electrons in an atom stay apart or even what an electron is; you won’t know how magnetism works or how spectra of nuclear or molecular bonding arise; you wont know how nerves in your body transmit information and you won’t know how your brain works – all subjects which surround us in close proximity 24 hrs a day. You won’t know much about the other end of the distance spectrum either – big bang, expanding and accelerating universe, quantity of matter or creation of matter.

Subatomic mechanisms are basic ways in which subatomic particles interact with each other. Each phenomenon which we observe consists of one or more subatomic mechanisms.

The objective of this paper is to list a series of subatomic mechanisms which, individually or in combination, form the basis of every phenomenon or event. For illustration, some of the common phenomena mentioned above are explained in terms of the listed subatomic mechanisms – what these phenomena really are and how they work. The same sort of reasoning can be applied to any other event or process.

An evident corollary to this approach is that the structure of atoms is quite different to electron theory of the late nineteenth century, progressively modified through quantum theory and uncertainty principle of the early 20th century, to the standard model of 1961. The structure of atoms according to this theory is addressed. (The reader may wish to preview these basic differences by first reading “Structure of Atoms” on page 44.)

Particles in Subatomic Mechanisms

With respect to interactions between subatomic particles, I don’t want to address all subatomic particles so far postulated. To keep things as simple as possible, and to avoid confusion and red herrings, from a raft of hundreds of subatomic particles so far defined1, let’s consider initially only the most common particles, i.e. those which occur in the greatest abundance in the universe. Imaginary or virtual particles, antiparticles, particles manufactured in particle accelerators with extremely short lives, are not relevant to this proposed theory. If we can also disregard for the moment, but address later, particles occurring in cosmic radiation, we are left with only the familiar protons, neutrons, electrons and neutrinos to consider.

Of these, protons and neutrons make up atomic nuclei representing about 4% of observable matter in the universe and neutrinos represent an estimated 96% of non-observable matter, collectively termed ‘dark matter’ and ‘dark energy’, in the universe. 2 With electron mass determined at 1/1836 of a proton 3, collectively electrons would account for about 0.001% of all matter in the universe. Other than the various particles in cosmic radiation, the nature of which are explained below, all of the other 300 or so particles possibly don’t exist under normal conditions and in any case, collectively represent virtually zero.

The nature of electrons, though long regarded as particles, is explained below as a product of one of the subatomic mechanisms – so let’s, for the moment, disregard electrons too. Along with electrons, let’s also disregard the convention of ‘charge’. The various forms of charge and behaviour of charged particles are also phenomena to be explained via subatomic mechanisms.

Now the task is much simplified. In defining subatomic mechanisms, we only have to consider interactions between protons, neutrons and neutrinos. Further, in the absence of the convention of ‘charge’, protons and neutrons start to look suspiciously alike, which would make the task even simpler – but let’s not go too far at this stage.

Before discussing various interactions between these particles, mechanisms (A) to (H) below, let’s first review basic facts about neutrinos, by far the most abundant of the group.

Neutrinos

Wolfgang Pauli postulated the existence of Neutrinos in 1931 and they were first detected in 1956. Since then Neutrinos have been divided into three “flavors”, each associated with an electron, muon or tau particle 4, each with a theoretical anti-particle and, in terms of dark matter and dark energy, also divided into hot and cold. Some of the particles have been detected. Japanese researchers 1998 – estimated neutrino mass at one ten millionth that of an electron.5 Neutrinos are hugely abundant, estimated variously to account for 90% to 99% of all matter in the universe 6 – the missing, so-called unobservable ‘dark matter’ and ‘dark energy’.

However, in the following subatomic mechanisms (A) to (I), in the resulting model of atomic structure, in describing the nature of protons, neutrons and electrons, and in the example explanations of how various phenomena work – gravity, light, magnetism, etc. – no such division of neutrinos into different types is required. Further, the accuracy of estimates of neutrino mass and abundance is not important in this theory, but the estimates do serve usefully to give the reader a feel for orders of magnitude of what is being discussed. This theory is not an extension of existing atomic theory; it is a different basic approach to the problem of defining subatomic mechanisms and atomic structure.

I don’t wish to invent yet another name for the very simple particles described below – the term “neutrinos” is used. What is meant by “neutrinos” in this theory is the following:

Neutrinos are neutral, near zero mass particles with spin and velocity, but no other properties. All a particular neutrino can do is to travel in a straight line at constant velocity until it collides with another neutrino. Velocities may range from zero to beyond C; spin frequency may range from zero to very high spin – equivalent to something near the spin of a proton or towards the upper limit of frequency of gamma radiation. The mass of a neutrino is not necessarily the same as that of other neutrinos – just near zero. Mass, speed and spin for a particular neutrino are the results of the neutrino’s previous collision with another neutrino. Neutrinos may and probably do degrade further in size via collisions. They are stable and able to exist in a free state – about 96% in a free state and about 4% tied up in observable matter at any instant.

The universe abounds in neutrinos, especially dense in flux in the vicinity of clumps of matter in the universe. We and everything we can observe exist in a sea of vast fluxes of neutrinos. Huge numbers of neutrinos continuously pass straight through us without interacting in any way. An estimated flux of ten thousand trillion trillion neutrinos hit or pass through the Earth every second.

Although all a neutrino can do is proceed in a straight line until colliding with another neutrino, the nub of this proposed theory and a corollary to the abundance of neutrinos is that, at sites where abundance is extreme, it is assumed that traffic jams of neutrinos can occur. This is addressed below as item (A) in the list of basic subatomic mechanisms.

This traffic jam mechanism leads to the structure of all protons and neutrons – all observable matter. Further, via properties of protons and neutrons, the traffic jam mechanism is the basis of all phenomena, electrons and other particles. We shall see that, via this mechanism, the complete contents of the universe – items and phenomena so massive, so common, so organized and so observable – arise from and are maintained by a huge random supply of the humble neutrino.

BASIC SUBATOMIC MECHANISMS

(A) TRAFFIC JAMS OF NEUTRINOS – The Origin of Protons and Observable Matter

It is proposed that neutrinos can form traffic jams where neutrino flux is extreme and these traffic jams, like all 3-dimensional traffic jams, are in the form of cyclones.

By way of analogy, we are familiar with cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes, etc. These cyclone-like occurrences are traffic jams of nitrogen, oxygen and water molecules in the atmosphere. We might call such a weather occurrence by a name, e.g. ‘cyclone Freda’, as if it were a single entity – even though the system consists of continuous streams of billions of component particles entering and leaving the cyclone at a furious rate. Winds incident to the cyclone maintain and compress the outer layers of the cyclone and cause the cyclone to spin so that velocity of the wind at the periphery is very high. For example, high spin, high density ‘twisters’ quickly drop to the ground in Kansas. Another common example is the phenomenon of vortices from aeroplane wings which fall quite rapidly to the ground (at about 10m per second). They are dense and energetic enough to break up tail assemblies of following planes that might collide with them. Thus at airports, there must be a time delay between planes taking off to allow for vortices to fall away from the flight path of the following plane. Compared with the periphery of a cyclone, the interior (or eye) of a cyclone is less dense.

In a similar mechanism, given a sufficient flux of neutrinos at a particular site, a traffic jam of neutrinos may form and be maintained using only the mechanism of collisions between neutrinos moving in a straight line. As always, a three dimensional traffic jam spins in the form of a cyclone, albeit, in the case of neutrino cyclones, double ended. Streams of neutrinos continuously enter the cyclone assembly and leave the cyclone after short residence, from both the periphery of the cyclone and from each pole of the cyclone. As with atmospheric cyclones, a cyclone traffic jam consisting of many millions of temporarily involved neutrinos is also known as a single entity. We call it a proton – the basic matter particle. A proton can therefore be defined as a stable cyclone of neutrinos in an equilibrium state between supply of neutrinos to, and dispersal of neutrinos from the cyclone.

The high spin of a neutrino cyclone is achieved by a continuous extremely high rate of collisions between neutrinos already temporarily in the cyclone, with incident neutrinos. At the same time, the overall cyclone assembly is compressed to a very high density.

Neutrino cyclones are not only basic matter particles, they also perform as centres of coordination. Although protons are formed from and maintained by what may be a generally uncoordinated supply of neutrinos, much of the neutrino flux dispersed from each neutrino cyclone is coordinated into streams of neutrinos with similar properties: – high speed, low spin streams of neutrinos from the high speed periphery and streams of neutrinos each with low speed and very high spin from the poles. As will be seen later in the paper, it is these coordinated streams which result the phenomena with which we are familiar in everyday life.

To reiterate, a proton is not just a single blob of matter or even a collection of a few blobs or ‘quarks’. Rather, each proton is a cyclone of millions of transient neutrinos. (The mass of a neutrino was estimated by Japanese researchers in 1998 at one ten-millionth of the mass of an electron. If correct, this would translate to something in the order of 20,000 million neutrinos forming a proton cyclone at any instant.) Each neutrino is present in the cyclone for only a short time before being dispersed from the cyclone. At equilibrium in a particular environment, say packed in the nucleus of an atom, supply of neutrinos to a proton is equal to dispersion of neutrinos from the proton.

The complex structure of proton neutrino cyclones allows us to address subjects like ‘atomic structure’, ‘creation of matter’, ‘annihilation of matter’, the no-longer-required ‘unification theory’, Einstein’s ‘relativity’, without resorting to imaginary particles or religion for explanation. These and other matters are briefly discussed below.

However, firstly, let’s continue listing subatomic mechanisms starting with some of the properties of neutrino cyclones, viz. proton size, proton spin, and proton location in space.

(B) EQUILIBRIUM SIZE OF A PROTON – Neutrons heavy Cosmic Radiation

The equilibrium size and mass of a neutrino cyclone depends on the rate of supply of incident neutrinos. A particular rate of arrival of incident neutrinos can sustain only a limited number of collisions necessary to maintain a net circular motion for a cyclone. This effectively limits the outer surface area of the cyclone to rate of supply. The higher the supply of incident neutrinos, the larger the cyclone and the higher the peripheral speed. However the countering consequence of higher rate of neutrino supply and higher peripheral speed of a neutrino cyclone, is higher erosion associated with many of the collisions between incident neutrinos and neutrinos already in the proton cyclone formation. The higher the neutrino supply rate, the higher the peripheral speed and the higher the erosion rate. Neutrino cyclone size resulting for a particular environment of neutrino supply is a statistical compromise between these two factors – abundance of neutrino supply and erosion of size. Via this mechanism, the size of each proton is limited to an equilibrium size for a particular environment.
Most neutrino cyclones are packed in the very dense environment of an atomic nucleus. In this environment, high neutrino supply to neutrino cyclones results, coming mainly from other packed protons and neutrons. Shielding of some of the supply by adjacent protons and neutrons and high erosion of peripheral neutrinos by adjacent protons and neutrons are factors which tend to limit neutrino cyclone size in that environment. The net result of these factors is that inner-packed neutrino cyclones are a bit fatter than neutrino cyclones which are packed towards the outside of an atomic nucleus. We call neutrino cyclones packed in the interior, neutrons, and those packed on the outside, protons. Although mass of a proton and mass of a neutron are quoted very precisely as if they are fixed constants, I suspect that mass of each would actually vary slightly, depending on the particular atomic nucleus and packed position. A neutron is therefore merely a fat proton.
If the environment changes, the equilibrium moves. For example, a neutron released from an atomic nucleus immediately starts decaying to the size of an isolated proton. An isolated neutron is said to have a mean life of about 12 minutes. 7
The heavy shedding of neutrinos during neutron decay to proton size acts as a shield in magnetic and electrical fields. An isolated proton is attracted by normal gravity mechanism (see subatomic mechanism (D), below) towards the source of neutrino flux in a magnetic field or electrical field, and is therefore deemed to be positively charged. However, a decaying isolated neutron in the same field is substantially shielded from the incident neutrino flux, and is therefore less attracted by the normal gravity mechanism and thus appears neutral. (This is one matter that could be established experimentally. If the neutron could be kept isolated, its behaviour should change towards that of a proton over several minutes.)
In an extreme environment in outer space, away from matter, low neutrino flux or supply rate will result in depleted proton cyclone size. Those cosmic ray particles that make holes in astronauts’ aluminium helmets and brains are partially depleted proton neutrino cyclones from our sun. Such particles headed for Earth, rapidly re-adjust in size to the new environment encountered even in the upper atmosphere, and become a proton once more. Conversely, if a neutrino cyclone continues into outer space, it will eventually completely disperse into individual neutrinos. Because of this, radiation from stars other than our sun would not contain neutrino cyclones, even depleted ones. (This matter could also possibly be established experimentally.)
At the other end of the spectrum of neutrino flux, it is likely that protons are actually continuously created in extremely dense neutrino flux environments like the interior of the sun and possibly also within the Earth.
In summary, cyclone assemblies of neutrinos make up matter as we know it, i.e. protons and neutrons. (Cosmic radiation particles are also cyclone assemblies but are not in a state of equilibrium and are never clustered together forming even a small part of matter.) Electrons are not regarded as mass particles because, as discussed below in (E), they exist separately from individual proton cyclones and separate from matter generally.
For a particular environment, neutrino cyclone size, peripheral speed of the cyclone, abundance of incident neutrino particles (including shielding factors) and speeds of incident neutrino particles are all inter-related. The net result for similar environments is that protons reach almost identical stable equilibrium states, but for different environments, size and mass of a proton at equilibrium will vary slightly.
(Notwithstanding the difference in behaviour in magnetic fields discussed above, the division of neutrino cyclones into protons and neutrons is really a mathematical arrangement resulting from the 100 year old Lorentz’s Electron Theory in which, for each atom, number of protons (deemed positively charged) = number of electrons (deemed negatively charged). The remaining mass particles are deemed to be neutrons to get the arithmetic right.)
Neutrons are merely fat protons. Neither protons nor neutrons have an intrinsic property called ‘charge’. (‘Charge’ is a convention which is explained in (E) and Item 5, below.)

(C) PROTON SPIN – How C, the Speed of Light, fits into this model.
The speed of neutrinos on the periphery of a proton neutrino cyclone at equilibrium, and the speed at which neutrinos are dispersed tangentially from each proton neutrino cyclone to maintain equilibrium, – is C, the familiar speed of light, approximately 3×108 m/s.
There is nothing intrinsically special about the speed of light. It just happens to be the equilibrium peripheral speed of neutrino cyclones in the normal environment of atomic nuclei. There is also no reason for the speed of light to be absolutely constant – in fact, it ought to vary at least slightly for different neutrino cyclone environments and sizes. There is also no reason why the speed of light cannot be exceeded. There is also no need for, or purpose in, the mysterious concept that items gain mass towards infinity as they move faster towards the speed of light. This and other relativity matters are discussed further below.
With a peripheral speed of C, the spin of a proton must be very high indeed. Is it believable that such a small object could spin so fast? Well, yes. In fact, much higher spins seem to be possible. Spectra of gamma radiation from atomic nuclei are mainly associated with nuclear bonding, see (F) below, i.e. vibrating proton-proton bonds. The total spectrum of gamma radiation from an atomic nucleus would include a component of repeated bursts of emission of neutrinos resulting from recovery of individual protons after each closure in a proton – proton bond. The frequency of this component should correspond to the spin of the proton. If the radius of a proton is, as experimentally determined, of the order of 0.86×10-15 m, we could expect a spectrum of some background gamma radiation in the vicinity of 5×1022 Hz resulting from rotation of protons – adjusting after encounters with adjacent protons packed in atomic nuclei – as in nuclear bonding (see Nuclear Bonding, (F)). This level of frequency is not an abnormal one. Much higher frequency gamma radiation has been observed and the detection limit of gamma radiation is of the order of 1029Hz.8
The significance of this property of proton neutrino cyclones is vast. It the basis of light (and all other electromagnetic radiation), – which all arise from matter. Electromagnetic radiation consists of pulses of neutrinos dispersed at speed C from the periphery of many protons in a mass – all coordinated collectively with each other. This is discussed in more detail below (see Light, Item 8, below).

(D) GRAVITY – WHY AN APPLE FALLS
Equilibrium Movement of Neutrino Cyclones
In addition to a neutrino cyclone’s size at equilibrium and spin at equilibrium for a particular environment of neutrino flux, the other important equilibrium factor is the neutrino cyclone’s position and movement in space. The equilibrium position of a neutrino traffic jam, once formed and compressed into a high-spin cyclone, is dependent on the direction and flux strength of streams of incident neutrino flux maintaining the neutrino cyclone. If the supply of neutrinos to a particular proton is biased, such that there is a higher intensity of supply from one direction, (such as from a huge object like the Earth), at any instant, an equilibrium bulge of the proton cyclone results towards that direction and the whole neutrino cyclone is statistically relocated in entirety towards that direction – i.e. towards the bias of greater supply of neutrino building block particles. This process is continuous and very fast – at the speed of light. The result is that the proton, whilst being continuously replaced by incident neutrino radiation is also effectively accelerated continuously towards the direction of maximum neutrino supply. This on-going process of statistical relocation of each neutrino cyclone towards maximum neutrino supply is the mechanism we know as ‘gravitational attraction’.
In the case of Mr .Newton’s falling apple, every proton (and neutron) in the apple is continuously and very quickly being statistically replaced by a bias of greater neutrino-building-block-particle supply from the earth. Gravity is not a ‘pulling force’, it is really the continuous statistical relocation of protons in the direction of the greatest supply of neutrinos.
With respect to neutrino supply, all neutrinos, at some stage having collided with or participated in, and having been dispersed from, protons (and neutrons), are then free to act on or participate in another proton cyclone – perhaps an adjacent proton in an atomic nucleus or in a molecule or perhaps a proton cyclone a million miles away. For any object at all, say like the Earth, the total spectrum of neutrino radiation emanating from it is directly related to the total sum of protons and neutrons in the object. All of such neutrino radiation is what we know as ‘gravity’.
Exactly the same mechanism of gravitational attraction operates at all distances – from astronomical distances in space to subatomic distances within a packed atomic nucleus. It is gravity that is responsible for molecular bonding and the spectra of radiation from molecules (see Molecular Bonding, Item 7, below). Gravity is also responsible for nuclear packing of protons (and neutrons) (see Nuclear Packing, Item 8, below). There is no need to invent a special force to account for holding protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei. Gravity does it. As illustrated above, the notion that gravity is a negative force or a pulling force or the ‘weakest of the four fundamental forces’ transmitted by imaginary ‘virtual exchange particles’ of zero mass – termed ‘gravitons’ is incorrect.
Note that gravity does not occur in waves. Continuing research efforts attempting to detect gravitons and gravity waves cannot possibly ever be successful.
Also note that the attracting mechanism of gravity applies only to neutrino cyclones (protons and neutrons), i.e. it is a mechanism that only operates mutually between protons or between clumps of matter. Gravity cannot attract electrons, and gravity cannot attract light or any other phenomena. (However, notwithstanding the previous sentence, gravity radiation may interact with electrons, light and other phenomena by way of individual collisions between neutrinos in the gravity radiation and neutrinos making up the particular phenomenon or electron – but this phenomenon is an entirely different mechanism to gravity and is discussed further below.)
In summary, gravity is not a ‘pulling’ force; it is a process of replacement and continuous statistical relocation and acceleration of neutrino cyclones towards the direction of greatest supply of incident neutrinos. The only particles which can possibly participate in the gravity mechanism are neutrino cyclones and neutrinos dispersed from them.

E) ELECTRONS AND CHARGE – Dispersion of Streams of Neutrinos from the Poles of Protons

Of the total flux of neutrinos continuously dispersed from a proton or neutrino cyclone, a proportion exit from the lower density interior of the proton cyclone via the poles. These continuous streams of neutrinos have relatively low speed but enormous spin. The axes of spin of all such neutrinos are coordinated with the spin axis of the proton and, of course, each other.
Because neutrinos dispersed at the poles travel relatively slowly compared with neutrinos dispersed at the periphery of the proton cyclone, they take much longer to move away from the proton cyclone and, therefore, statistically, at any instant, a relatively high density cloud of high-spin, axis-coordinated neutrinos results near the proton cyclone. This dynamic zone of transient, high-spin, coordinated, neutrino building block particles surrounding the proton is known as an electron. The electron cloud represents a high level of rotational energy packed into a relatively small zone – a condition we refer to as “charge”. (You can’t pack high velocity kinetic energy into a small zone. However, high velocity and high spin are quite interchangeable in individual neutrino collisions.) An electron cloud does not have a definite outer limit, although density of this zone drops off very rapidly with distance from the proton. Outer neutrinos of the electron cloud are eventually dispersed via collisions with other neutrinos. The electron cloud dispersed from each proton pole is continuously replenished from the proton cyclone pole source.
The dense concentration of coordinated, high-spin neutrinos can act as a group, in short-range or local gravitational attraction and in spin-dependent neutrino-neutrino collisions. This concentrated power is amplified in magnets and on the surface of other bulk substances like plastics, where large numbers of proton cyclones can be coordinated so that all of the dispersed high-spin neutrinos from the poles of all surface proton cyclones are coordinated. This results in an extremely high concentration of high-spin neutrinos in a concentrated zone available for strong local gravitation movement and /or spin related interaction with local proton cyclones. Magnetism, Item 21, and Static Electricity, Item 15, are discussed below.
In atoms, electron zones are not in specific orbits or energy states (as depicted by Bohr in 1922)9. Within an atomic nucleus, the electron cloud from a particular packed proton pole, either participates in adjacently packed proton cyclones or is involved in collisions with neutrinos in other electron clouds. Proton cyclones (continuously producing electron clouds) which are packed on the outer surface of an atomic nucleus are more likely to have a pole exposed at the surface, enabling it to be involved in chemical reactions and other surface phenomena than proton cyclones packed in the interior.
Whereas, in an electron cloud associated with a particular proton, the neutrinos comprising the zone have high spins whose spin axes are approximately parallel to the axis of the originating proton cyclone, in an atom, there will generally be a variety of orientations of proton cyclones and thus a variety of orientations for neutrino spins. Therefore, the overall electron zone distribution around the surface of a packed atomic nucleus is likely to be a quite complex statistical one, which is both peculiar to the packing of that particular nucleus and also dependent on the environment of that particular atom in relation to other adjacent atoms. (The system possibly forms complex keys for enzyme, viral and other basically chemical reactions.)

The fields of science and technology dependent on electron behaviour and the convention of charge are vast. Some of these subjects like the convention of charge, electricity, static electricity, magnetism, and some associated phenomena like lightning, thermionic emission and cathode rays, Millikin oil drop experiment, are briefly discussed later. (See Discussion of Common Phenomena and Other Matters, below)

(F) STOPPING AND REPULSION OF A PROTON,
Proton–Proton Collisions

There are three ways to move a proton as outlined in mechanisms (D) above, here in (F) and in (G) below. Gravity, described in mechanism (D) above, can move and accelerate protons because of their cyclone structure. Gravity is a continuous process of statistical relocation of each whole proton cyclone towards the direction of the greatest supply of incident neutrinos. (Other entities like electrons and phenomena like light cannot be “attracted” by gravity. It is the writer’s opinion that experimental conclusions to the contrary are misinterpretations of results and misunderstandings of mechanisms involved. See Electromagnetic Radiation, Item 8 and other items 9 to 14 below.)

A second way to move protons is in overcoming the gravity mechanism by collision of protons or rather close closure of adjacent protons. When a proton comes in close proximity to another proton, peripheral neutrinos of each cyclone are involved in a vastly increased rate of collisions effectively eroding each proton cyclone. Violent mutual repulsion results as the protons close and erode, and a vast number of neutrino particles are emitted in a one-off pulse from each proton cyclone. Much of the emitted pulses of neutrino flux moves away from the collision of the two protons generally at the speed of light, C.
After repulsion, as protons move away from each other, interference of the two cyclones is reduced and at some point gravitational attraction again becomes dominant once more. Thus protons in proximity to each other may resonate relative to each other with alternating gravitational attraction and close proximity repulsion giving off a burst of radiation of neutrinos at each closure. The regular burst of radiation of neutrinos at each closure make up what we know as waves of electromagnetic radiation.

Physically stopping any mass (of protons), and events in the Newtonian world like pushing or pulling a mass, bouncing, elasticity, compression, etc. are based on the same subatomic principals of proton-proton repulsion at close proximity. The sudden increased release of neutrino building block particles from such events may be evident as heat or light depending on how nearby protons are affected.

To reiterate, protons don’t repel each other via ‘charge’. On the contrary, they attempt to attract each other gravitationally continuously. Protons only repel each other when they get too close to each other, in which case violent interference between the two cyclones’ periphery spin results, with an enormous number of collisions and chaotic emission of neutrino radiation and consequent explosive repulsion. This is the mechanism of nuclear and molecular bonding. (See Discussion of Common Phenomena and Other Matters, items 6 & 7, below)

Note: Uncoordinated Neutrino Dispersion from a Proton Cyclone and Shielding Effects
Within the total flux of neutrinos continuously dispersed from a neutrino cyclone, we have already discussed streams of neutrinos dispersed at speed C from the periphery and streams of low-speed, high-spin neutrinos dispersed from the poles of neutrino cyclones. In addition to this coordinated dispersal, there is also a lot of violent uncoordinated dispersion of neutrinos resulting from collisions between incident neutrinos and the periphery of the neutrino cyclone. Some interference action results from this relative chaos about the proton and tends to partially shield the cyclone from the gravity mechanism described in mechanism (D). As described in mechanism (F), the gravity mechanism can be completely outweighed by excessive chaos, resulting in the proton being stopped and pushed away from the chaos. Conversely, when such chaos is minimized as in magnetism, (see mechanism (G) and item21), the gravitational process is enhanced.
Notwithstanding, these interference effects, once dispersed neutrinos have moved away from the proton, all dispersed neutrinos, irrespective of individual properties, are then available to participate again in some other proton cyclone, – perhaps adjacent in an atomic nucleus or perhaps a million miles away. The collective term given to all dispersed radiation – coordinated or uncoordinated – is gravity to the receiving proton.

(G) MOVEMENT OF A PROTON WITH A STREAM OF COORDINATED NEUTRINOS – Mutual movement of Magnets and Electrostatically Charged bodies

As well as movement via mechanism of gravity (D) and the mechanism of stopping and repulsion (F), protons can also be moved by action of a continuous stream of neutrinos with coordinated spin. This happens with respect to the phenomenon of mutual attraction/repulsion of magnets and with respect to movement of magnetic particles in magnetic fields. This mechanism also applies with respect to the phenomenon of mutual attraction/repulsion of bodies ‘charged’ with static electricity and with respect to movement of electrostatically ‘charged’ particles in magnetic fields. Note that this mechanism for these phenomena is not really a separate one. Rather it is a melding of (D) and (F).

Neutrinos in an electron cloud emanating from a proton pole are coordinated with respect to spin. When a large number of protons are packed in a coordinated way, as in a magnet, collectively, neutrinos emanating from each pole of the magnet are coordinated with respect to spin.

If a stream of incident neutrinos from the pole of a magnet collides with the exposed end of a proton in a separate body, the target proton, the outcome is dependent on the direction of spin of the target proton and direction of spin of the incident neutrinos.

If the two spins are compatible, minimum interference occurs and the proton is statistically relocated towards the incident neutrino stream by enhanced gravity mechanism.

If the opposite is the case, i.e. if the spin of an incident neutrino colliding with the exposed end of the target proton is not compatible with the spin of the proton, maximum interference occurs and the proton tends to be shielded from gravitational attraction and repelled from the neutrino stream.

(H) COLLISIONS OF INDIVIDUAL NEUTRINOS AND INTERACTION OF SETS OF NEUTRINOS – Processes which do not involve protons
When free neutrinos collide with each other, the result of the collision is probably similar to that expected from Newtonian dynamics, modified depending on spin. When a set or stream of neutrinos, all with the same properties, interacts with another stream or set of neutrinos, we can sometimes observe the statistical result of a vast number of similar individual collisions. For example, the behaviour of an electron in a magnetic field, as discussed above, is a collective deflection away from the source of the magnetic radiation due to a vast number of individual collisions between neutrinos in the electron set and neutrinos in the magnetic field stream. In another example, light from a distant star may be observed to bend around a nearer star. This phenomenon is not gravitational attraction of light – that can’t happen. Rather the light in question is encountering interference from all neutrino radiation emitted from the nearer star. The number of collisions encountered by the neutrinos in the pulses of light will be much greater near the star than at distance. In another example, black holes are not visible because neutrino density is so high in the black hole that any sets of coordinated neutrinos, as in electromagnetic radiation, are completely randomised through multiple collisions and no ordered pulses of light emerge from the chaos. The chaos is thus unobservable and is therefore referred to as ‘black’. However, note that plenty of uncoordinated radiation emerges from the chaos, all of it available to act gravitationally on any object – and this can be observed as gravity. Other particular events involving interactions between neutrinos are discussed in the brief descriptions of the relevant phenomena.
Note: Transition from Spin Rotational Energy to Linear Kinetic Energy
The ease of transition of any particle from a state of high linear velocity / high linear kinetic energy to a state of low linear velocity / high rotational energy (and the reverse process) may not be generally realized by the reader. Only a few collisions are necessary to achieve such a transition. This is not only a subatomic phenomenon, it can be observed in one’s home in normal circumstances using a highly resilient ball – say of solid polyurethane composition. If such a ball is thrown at a brick wall on the full at right angles- at high velocity and low spin, it returns at around the same velocity and similar spin. If the ball is thrown at the same velocity but so that it hits the floor before the wall, the return velocity may be reduced to about one seventh while very fast spin is induced in the ball due to the two oblique collisions with floor and wall. Neglecting contributions from gravity and the wall itself, the linear kinetic energy of the ball has been reduced to a small fraction – a few percent – of the original and a lot of the original energy is present as rotational energy. Conversely, if the ball in its high state of spin is allowed to hit the floor on return, the ball regains a lot of velocity and substantially loses spin. The property of spin and the easy transition – high spin to and fro high velocity, is important in understanding the accepted conventions of classical physics – electrons, magnetism, charge, gravity, etc.
The continuous formation of electrons at the poles of protons, represents an ability to store in a compact zone a huge amount of rotational energy which can be readily converted to kinetic energy. Perhaps this could possibly be harnessed in better ways than already achieved in electricity, magnetism and electrostatics.

(I) ORIENTATION OF A PROTON’S AXIS OF SPIN – Behaviour of Surface Protons in Atomic Nuclei and Surface Protons in a Mass of Atoms
Another property that proton cyclones have is orientation of axis of spin. The formation and maintenance of any cyclone results in its spin axis being at right angles to the maximum supply of incident particles – wind in the case of atmospheric cyclones and supply of incident neutrinos in the case of proton cyclones. For a proton sited on the surface of a body – say a lump of metal or a lump of plastic isolated in air – maximum neutrino contribution to the particular surface proton cyclone comes from protons in adjacent atoms and molecules in the body – i.e. collectively from the main part of the body. The net result is that surface protons tend to be oriented with spin axes aligned within the plane of the outside surface – at right angles to the direction of the main bulk of the body – unless they are prevented from doing so by molecular bonding. This is an important consideration when considering mechanisms for static electricity, gravity, conduction, magnetism and other matters discussed further below.
Nearly all properties of individual atoms, molecules and substances generally – chemistry, conductivity, static electricity, etc. – are related to the environment of surface protons and the way in which surface protons are held. Proton cyclones in the interior of atomic nuclei are tightly confined by adjacently packed protons – suspended in a tight space, buffeted by gravitational attraction and violent proximity-repulsion of the surrounding protons. However, protons on or near the surface of atomic nuclei may be less firmly positioned or confined. So, depending on the molecular structure of the mass, surface protons may behave quite differently. Chemistry, conductivity and other properties of surfaces may thus be quite different to the bulk of the particular object – e.g. wires conduct more electricity near the surface. The specific orientation within the plane of the surface will depend on local proton association with other protons.

Static Electricity is an interesting phenomenon in which bodies, surface-charged with static electricity, can move each other without touching each other and without using up the charge. An attempted explanation, albeit a woolly one, of what is happening is given below. (See Discussion of Common Phenomena and Other Matters, items 15 & 16, below)

DISCUSSION OF SOME COMMON PHENOMENA AND OTHER MATTERS based on mechanisms (A) to (I)

1. Creation of Observable Matter
An elegant corollary of cyclone traffic-jam proton structure is the mechanism of creation of matter generally. Because a proton is a dynamic cyclone traffic jam assembly in equilibrium, individual particles remain in the proton cyclone only temporarily before being dispersed from it. Immediately after participating in a proton, particles are free to reconstitute another proton (if traffic-jam conditions are right) or free to participate in maintaining equilibrium in another existing proton cyclone. The same particle can participate in the same process time and time again, and has an infinite time to do so. Thus neutrino particles are not used up permanently- just temporarily. What is used up is merely a bit of their time of which they have infinity. Matter can be created continuously in the universe (where particle supply is dense enough) without usage of particle supply.
Matter in the universe occurs in somewhat irregular large clumps of matter with dense environments – these being preferential sights for further traffic jams and further creation of protons. Matter is composed of borrowed neutrino mass – a combination of two components – mass and time. Since time is infinite, it may seems that, in a particular zone of space, organised matter (protons) can be created without using up the substrate or supply of particles from which matter is created! Presumably, creation of matter in a particular zone would eventually be limited by physical loss of individual neutrinos from the zone.
Whereas the high rate of neutrino supply in packed nuclei results in fat protons, in the environment of deep dark outer space where abundance of neutrino building blocks is low, proton cyclones cannot be sustained in stable equilibrium and may partially reduce in size or may eventually completely disperse. Each individual building block particle once dispersed is available for recycling back into matter at some time in the future somewhere else in the universe. Thus observable or organised matter (protons) can be eliminated if a proton manages to stray into deep dark outer space where neutrino abundance is insufficient to sustain the proton cyclone equilibrium. Perhaps the universe already is or is developing into steady state equilibrium of clumped matter operating between these two mechanisms.
In the collapse of a star, if proton cyclones are compressed together, they will violently interact (as described for the process of stopping, (F)) giving off enormous quantities of neutrino radiation which leaves the star. In the process, heavier element atoms are created.

2.    Annihilation of Observable Matter

3. Cosmic Radiation
Cosmic radiation includes free neutrinos, clusters of high-spin neutrinos – electrons, and neutrino cyclones. The neutrino cyclones in cosmic radiation reduce in size in the environment of reduced neutrino flux en route from Sun to Earth. Once nearer the Earth, these slim protons start to readjust size equilibrium and eventually recover to a full proton. (Perhaps slim protons within cosmic radiation are contributors to the process of evolution of species.) Clusters of high-spin neutrinos may also retain enough form and association in the journey from the sun to be detected as similar to electrons. Depending on the coordinated spin a particular cluster exhibits, the detection may classify it as either negative or positive charge, i.e. either an electron or a positron.
One of the paradoxes associated with subatomic physics is the observation that Newtonian dynamics, which suits the movements of large bodies, does not apply properly to subatomic particles. This misconception has arisen from the past oversimplification of proton structure. Even though a proton cyclone consists of millions of neutrinos, the properties of the cyclone structure allow what is a very complex assembly of transient neutrinos to behave and appear as if it were a single, solid, high-density particle. When we try to apply Newtonian rules as if we are dealing with single object, Newtonian physics doesn’t work properly.
Newtonian laws cannot be applied to a cyclone, be it atmospheric or subatomic, as if it were a single entity – even though individual neutrino building blocks in proton cyclones obey Newtonian dynamics. To consider an event involving a proton cyclone during a period of time, it would be necessary to take into account all movements of each incident neutrino, each resident neutrino and each dispersed neutrino associated with the proton cyclone during the period of the event. If the relevant mathematics could be drafted to cover cyclone events, taking into account all individual neutrinos participating in a particular event over a certain period of time, including all those neutrinos which have interacted with the cyclone and which have been dispersed, we would find that Newtonian rules do work in the subatomic realm also. We don’t need a Unification theory.

4.    The Unification Theory Paradox

5. Charge
Throughout history, technology has marched on, almost independent of attempts at academic rationalization of what technology has already achieved. In the absence of basic understanding, conventions are made – a useful set of rules which summarize what is expected by technical people to happen in an event based on past experience of other technical people. The concept of ‘charge’ is such a convention. Technology has been able to make use of particular phenomena via rules of convention without the necessity of understanding the basics. For example, the electrician knows which wires to connect to the power supply, and the motor mechanic, using a slightly different set of conventions, knows how to connect a car battery.
Irrespective of whether understanding a subatomic mechanism for an event or phenomenon is regarded as important or merely esoteric, all subatomic mechanisms behind the conventions we use concerning ‘charge’, (and all other matters), can always be boiled down to vast numbers of collisions either between neutrinos and proton cyclone structures or between a set of neutrinos and other neutrinos radiated from different sources.
The convention that electrons have a ve charge, protons a +ve charge and neutrons zero charge, is mathematically convenient. The convention has been approximately rationalised experimentally by the differences in behaviour that protons, neutrons and electrons exhibit in a magnetic field. However, the reason that experiment has suited the convention is not because of arithmetic. The reason is that protons and electrons migrate towards different poles in a magnetic field, because the mechanism for migration is completely different for the two entities: Electrons are deflected by neutrino-neutrino collisions – i.e. the neutrinos that make up the electron cloud are deflected away by the neutrinos from the magnetic source. On the other hand, proton cyclones in a magnetic field are statistically attracted/displaced via the gravity mechanism described above towards the strong source of incident magnetic neutrinos.

6. Molecular Bonding
In molecular bonding, both gravitational attraction, subatomic mechanism (D) and close proximity repulsion between protons, subatomic mechanism (F), come into play. In a molecule, individual protons or groups of protons are attracted towards each other via gravitational replacement – only to be repelled by the violent interaction as they close. The cycle repeats in trampoline like manner, and, at each repulsion, there is emission of an intense wave of extra neutrino radiation above normal background. This trampoline effect repeats continuously and we are therefore able to observe from each pair of resonating protons, electromagnetic radiation of a particular frequency. (Note: In 1913, Bohr proposed a theory to explain the spectrum readings for hydrogen, i.e. why Hydrogen atoms only emit energy at particular levels.9 The theory incorporated an explanation as to why negatively charged electrons were not attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In Bohr’s Quantum Theory, electrons can only occupy certain orbits but are able to leap from one orbit or energy state or quantum to another without any presence between. However, I presume that the real explanation for the spectrum of hydrogen contains is that it contains one line, i.e. a particular radiation frequency and energy, for each of the vibration species in the hydrogen mix being examined – e.g. two bonded atoms vibrating with compatible spins; two vibrating with incompatible spins; twisted vibrations for both of these and perhaps some end-on bonding and vibration. I also presume that the intensity of the spectral lines would correspond to the proportion of each species of H-H in the mix.)

7. Nuclear Bonding and Nuclear Packing
In nuclear bonding, a similar process to that of molecular bonding occurs – but with an additional factor in play. In nuclear packing, protons are packed with compatible spins, i.e. spins in the same tangential direction at the point of proximity, minimizing interference between proton pairs. Packed adjacent protons with compatible spins may approach much more closely before being repelled from each other than if spins were incompatible, and, at the closer proximity thereby possible, the intensity of gravitational attraction to each other is proportionally higher. Again, in nuclear bonding, resonance can be observed in the form of pulsed emissions of neutrinos, i.e. electromagnetic radiation, but at higher frequencies than associated with molecular bonding – corresponding to the greater strength in the gravitational attraction bond between the two, due to closer proximity. (In molecular bonding spins are generally incompatible and violent interaction therefore occurs while the protons are further apart.)
(Note: Individual protons in a packed nucleus are not likely to be symmetrical. The convention of one electron per proton and none for neutrons does not apply in this theory. Inner packed neutrons have their electron zones too. In a packed nucleus, the electron zones associated with proton poles on the outer part of the nucleus are likely to be intermingled with each other and contribution to surface phenomena from inner packed protons (i.e. neutrons ) would be relatively minor.)

8. Light and Electromagnetic Radiation generally
Like all other events and phenomena, the phenomenon of light and the speed of light both result from proton structure. The nature of electromagnetic radiation has already been alluded to above in mechanisms© and (F). To reiterate, visible light and other types of electromagnetic radiation are composed of repeated pulses or waves of neutrinos dispersed at the periphery of proton cyclones, largely travelling at C with low spin.
The pulsed pattern of emission from a particular proton cyclone is a direct reflection of the pulsed pattern of input of neutrinos to the proton cyclone. Most of the incident streams of radiation supporting a particular proton cyclone come from adjacent protons in the body of matter of which the particular proton is part – from other protons in the same atomic nucleus and from other protons in the molecular structure of which the the atom is part.
Like the particular proton, the adjacent protons are not entirely fixed in space but rather are only confined – vibrating back and forth or resonating with other protons in molecules and in atomic nuclei – by gravitational attraction to and violent repulsion by their proton neighbours. At each violent repulsion, a burst of neutrinos is emitted (see Molecular Bonding, item 6, and Nuclear Bonding, item 7, above). It is this pulsed radiation that forms most of the incident radiation to the particular proton cyclone.
Since the proton cyclone is in equilibrium with its environment, emission from the particular proton cyclone immediately reflects pulsed inputs -albeit dampened a bit in the process.
Note that not all incident neutrino radiation to a particular proton cyclone is pulsed and emission relating to non-pulsed incident radiation will therefore not be pulsed. By various means (e.g. eyesight for emissions in the visible spectrum) we can detect that part of the emission from a proton which is being emitted in waves. We call that part of neutrino emission from a proton cyclone electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation originates as waves of neutrinos dispersed from a proton over a general background of neutrino radiation.
When a large group of proton cyclones is subjected to the same pulsed incident radiation, all will reflect this pulsed incident radiation by pulsed emission dispersed in coordination. Thus wave emissions from each proton in a group will be reinforced by and coordinated with emissions from all of the protons in the group. As long as there is not too much interference from collisions with other neutrinos in the environment, neutrinos coordinated as electromagnetic radiation will remain coordinated in the same waves as originally dispersed from groups of protons.
Much of this type of wave radiation, as well as much of the general radiation dispersed form proton cyclones, is dispersed tangentially from the periphery at speed C. (When we talk about the speed of light, C, we are really referring to the equilibrium size and peripheral velocity of protons packed in the environment of atomic nuclei.)
Some radiation of course originates from the proton poles and from collisions at speeds other than C and this adds to a confused general background. However, the net result is that what we think of and what we detect as electromagnetic radiation is the regular variation in density of neutrinos dispersed from proton cyclone sources over a background and only such radiation which travelling at C.

Of the overall spectrum of general gravity dispersed from proton cyclones, electromagnetic radiation is the only form of radiation which is observable and which is generally considered in scientific research. Other radiation in the overall spectrum of dispersed neutrino radiation – general gravity, magnetism and even electromagnetic radiation travelling at speeds other than C cannot be detected and are generally not considered at all in scientific research.

Incomplete understanding of the nature of light and electromagnetic radiation generally may be inhibiting research. For example, on-going research attempts to detect “gravity waves” cannot possibly be successful — gravity waves of course don’t exist. The realization that matter and radiated energy are interchangeable, is thought of only in terms of electromagnetic radiation travelling at C (the detectable part) rather than
all radiation. The expression e=mC2 can be only partially true – It refers only to electromagnetic radiation travelling at C. Paradoxes about the speed of light and Einstein’s Theory of Relativity are discussed below. (See item 9.)

9. Einstein’s Special Relativity and the Speed of Light.

There is much eulogizing and explaining about what is regarded as Einstein’s major insight: the Theory of Special Relativity. Seemingly illogical paradoxes which arise with respect to relativity and the speed of light are explained via Special Relativity, arriving at surprising conclusions. However, no paradoxes or surprising conclusions are in fact necessary. There is nothing special about C. It only happens to be the equilibrium peripheral speed of a proton cyclone, when is packed in the environment of an atomic nucleus. C is the speed of much radiation, including light or electromagnetic radiation as we know it, i.e. neglecting slower radiation, relative to the proton position at the instant of leaving. This last phrase, “relative to the proton position at the instant of leaving” is of key importantance when understanding relativity problems. In more detail:

1. The speed, C, for a particular neutrino making up part of a stream of electromagnetic radiation, is a velocity relative to the proton position, say A, at the instant of leaving the proton cyclone source. Once electromagnetic radiation has left the source proton, it continues to travel at C relative to position A, whether the proton moves or not from position A.
2. If the observer remains at a fixed distance from A and the proton source remains at A, then the observer will see light approach at speed C relative to himself with the same wavelength and frequency as occurring at the proton source.
3. If, however, the proton source of the electromagnetic radiation is moving away from the observer who remains a fixed distance from the original position, A, then the light will reach the observer at speed C but observed wavelength or distance between pulses will, of course, be a bit longer and frequency a bit lower. Conversely, if the source is moving towards the observer, the light reaches the observer at speed C but with shorter wavelength and higher frequency.
4. On the other hand, if the observer is moving towards A and the proton source remains at A, then the speed of light relative to the observer will be higher than C and observed frequency will be a bit higher. Conversely, if the observer is moving away from A and the proton source remains at A, then the speed of the light particles reaching the observer will be seen as slower than C relative to the observer and frequency a bit lower than if the observer and source proton remained at a fixed distance. Note that actual (not observed) wavelength is not changed in either case.
5. The reality for a long distance observation is a compromise between these circumstances.

This simplicity does not entirely agree with Einstein’s Special Relativity, which holds that ‘light always travels at C relative to the observer’. For example, the so-called Emitter Theory in which light propagation was (sensibly) thought to be ‘like bullets, relative to the source of the light’ was deemed to be discredited in the 1960s. The definitive experiment discrediting the emitter theory was carried out by Alvager et al. in 1964.10 Light emitted in a forward direction from particles moving close to the speed of light themselves was found to be travelling at C relative to the laboratory.

This result would certainly be true for the particular experimental conditions which are conditions equivalent to the latter conditions cited in situation 3 above, – in which the source is moving towards the observer. However, it is invalid to extrapolate the conclusions to cover all possible observers particularly including situation 4 above where the observer is moving relative to where the source of the detected radiation was at the instant of emission. (See note below.) It is this invalid extrapolation which is used as justification of the incorrect Einstein’s Special Relativity and which leads to all of the consequent paradoxes.

If Alvager et al. had properly understood the nature of light – i.e the proton cyclone source and mechanism of production of light – and understood that the speed of a particular portion of light is indeed C but is relative to the point A where the source was at the instant of emission and not relative to the source if the source is moving from A, then their results would not have seemed remarkable or conclusive of anything, but rather expected. All of the agonizing we tend to encounter a lot about relativity is simply not needed. There is a similar explanation for every paradox encountered.

Note on Relativity: The process of statistical relocation is very fast in that incident particles travelling very fast, generall

... What do you do if your field is so fast changing that it is difficult to select a topic that won’t be outdated rather speedily? Also that to someone working in the field; the answer to most questions that could be asked is self-evident?

Should one just fake it, do your research, and prove what you already know? How do you find the enthusiasm to do so?

This experience was pretty rewarding, but was quite a lot of hard work, and then even more jerking around with spelling grammar and all kinds of madness that only academic journals care about.

But seeing the article was cool, and knowing that I had made a contribution to a discourse made me feel like I was doing something real in the world.

In fact in retrospect I believe that maybe this isn’t as hard as it might seem and the key is to find the right place to be published rather than write a real ‘gun’ article.

I want to tackle some original problem worth tackling and contribute my findings back to society.

I had a paper published and was invited to present it at conference in Philidelphia. It was good, however I did it for the free all expenses paid trip to the states from the UK.

Had a ball. Met up with a guy from the univesity of Dublin and visited many, many bars.

I think this is becoming a really long term goal, due to the fact that I graduated from school and don’t really know what I would do if I go back.

I do think I am going back eventually though, for some reason.

I submitted my first academic paper, but I suspect that it will not get published, due to the fact that I left out some very important citations.